홍대용(洪大容)
◆기본 정보
홍대용(洪大容, 1731~1783)은 노론 명문가 출신의 북학파 실학자로서 조선의 과학사상의 발전에 큰 역할을 했다. 1765년(영조41) 숙부 홍억(洪檍)의 자제군관으로 북경을 방문 한 후 청나라 고증학과 서양 문물을 접한 뒤 귀국하여 박지원 등에게 영향을 끼쳐 북학파 형성에 기여하였다. 저서로는 『담헌서(湛軒書)』와 연행록인 『담헌연기(湛軒燕記)』가 있다.
◆작가 생애
홍대용의 본관은 남양(南陽). 자는 덕보(德保), 호는 담헌(湛軒) 또는 홍지(弘之)다. 대사간 홍용조(洪龍祚)의 손자이며, 목사(牧使) 홍역(洪櫟)의 아들이다. 어머니는 청풍(淸風) 김씨 군수 김방(金枋)의 딸이고, 부인은 이홍중(李弘重)의 딸이다.
당대의 유학자 김원행(金元行)에게 배웠고, 북학파 실학자인 박지원(朴趾源)과는 깊이 교유했다. 과거에 여러 번 응시하였으나 낙방하여 관직에는 오르지 못했다. 그러나 그는 명실상부 조선 후기의 뛰어난 과학사상가로 자리매김하였는데, 여기에는 그의 ‘북경체험’ 영향이 크다.
1765년, 홍대용은 연행사(燕行使)의 서장관으로 북경으로 가게 된 숙부 홍억(洪檍)의 자제군관(子弟軍官) 자격으로 연행하였다. 홍대용이 북경에 체류한 기간은 대략 60일이었다. 그 기간 동안 청나라 지식인인 엄성(嚴誠)·반정균(潘庭筠)·육비(陸飛) 등과 교유하였다.
홍대용이 북경에 머물면서 교유한 인물들 가운데 중요한 이들이 바로 서양인 선교사들이다. 그는 천주당에서 유송령(劉松齡; August von Hallerstein)과 부정(副正) 포우관(鮑友管; Antoine Gogeisl )을 만나 필담을 나누며 천주교와 천문학을 주제로 토론했다. 이 과정 속에서 그는 자연과학의 기초가 되는 수학 이론을 인식하였다.
일찍이 그는 지전설(地轉說)과 우주무한론(宇宙無限論)을 주장했으며, 이러한 자연관을 근거로 중국 중심의 화이론(華夷論)를 회의하는 입장을 표명하였다. 하지만 그의 관직 경력은 화려하지 않다. 영천군수를 역임하는데 그쳤으며, 52세로 세상을 떠났다.
◆작품 세계
담헌 홍대용이 남긴 저서로는 『담헌서(湛軒書)』가 있으며 편서(編書)에 『건정필담(乾淨筆談)』, 『담헌연기(湛軒燕記)』, 『임하경륜(林下經綸)』, 『사서문의(四書問疑)』, 『항전척독(抗傳尺牘)』, 『삼경문변(三經問辨)』 등을 남겼다. 특히 『담헌서(湛軒書)』는 약간의 시(詩)·서(書)를 제외하면 거의가 북경에서 돌아온 뒤 10여 년 사이에 쓴 것이다. 따라서 그의 작품 세계를 논함에 있어 북경체험은 가장 큰 축을 차지한다. 우선 『담헌서』의 구성을 간략히 살펴보면 다음과 같다.
『담헌서』는 내집(內集)과 외집(外集)으로 구성되어 있다. 내집은 권1~권4로 분류한다. 권1에는 「심성문(心性問)」·「사서문변(四書問辨)」·「삼경문변(三經問辨)」이 실려 있다. 권2에는 사론(史論)·「계방일기(桂坊日記)」, 권3에는 서(書)·시, 권4에는 「임하경륜(林下經綸)」·「의산문답(醫山問答)」이 실려 있다. 외집은 권1~권10으로 분류한다. 권1은 「항전척독(杭傳尺牘)」, 권2와 권3의 「건정동필담(乾淨衕筆談)」이며 권4∼6의 주해수용(籌解需用), 권7∼10의 연기(燕記) 가 수록되어 있다.
이 가운데 그의 실학사상과 학적(學的) 네트워크가 잘 드러난 몇 개의 작품을 개괄해 보면 다음과 같다.
① 『연기(燕記)』: 그의 연행록이다. 19세기 학자 김경선(金景善)에 의해 노가재 김창업(金昌業)의 『노가재연행일기』와 연암 박지원의 『열하일기(熱河日記)』와 더불어 3대 연행록으로 일컬어진 바 있다. 『담헌서』 외집의 권7~권10에 실려 있다. 홍대용의 나이 35세 때 동지사 서장관이던 숙부 홍억(洪檍)을 따라 자제군관 자격으로 북경에 갔다 온 뒤 10여 년 동안 당시의 견문을 정리한 글이다.
권1~3에는 청나라의 여러 지식인과 만나 나눈 이야기와 「연행기략 燕行記略」·「경성기략 京城記略」 등이 실려 있다. 의주를 출발하여 북경에 도착하기까지의 일들과 북경 체류 중에 견문한 그곳 풍광을 기록한 것이다.
권3~4에는 서양의 기술 문명이 빚어낸 편리함과 중국인의 생활상을 각 항목별로 자세히 서술했다. 10권 10책의 「을병연행록(乙丙燕行錄)」에는 같은 내용을 한글로 기록하고 있다.
②「유포문답(劉鮑問答)」: 당시 독일계 선교사로 중국의 흠천감정(欽天監正)인 유송령(劉松齡; August von Hallerstein)과 부정(副正)인 포우관(鮑友管; Anton Gogeisl)을 만나 필담을 통하여 천주교와 천문학의 이모저모를 기록한 내용으로, 서양 문물에 관한 가장 상세한 기록이다.
③「항전척독(杭傳尺牘)」과 「건정동필담(乾淨衕筆談)」: 북경에서 교유한 청나라 지식인들과의 편지글들로 구성되어 있다. 육비와 4통, 엄성과 4통, 엄성의 형 엄과(嚴果)와 3통, 엄성의 아들 엄앙(嚴昻)과 2통, 반정균과 4통, 서광정(徐光庭)과 1통, 등문헌(鄧汶軒)과 4통, 손용주(孫蓉洲)와 5통, 조매헌(趙梅軒)과 2통, 주랑재(朱郞齋)와 1통으로 모두 30통을 수록했다.「건정동필담(乾淨衕筆談)」은 홍대용이 의형제를 맺었던 엄성·반정균·육비 등과 나눈 필담을 정리한 것이다. 양국 지식인들 사이의 우정을 면밀히 엿볼 수 있는 자료이다.
④「의산문답(醫山問答)」: 의무려산(醫巫閭山)에 숨어 사는 실옹(實翁)과 조선의 학자 허자(虛子) 사이에 대화체로 쓰였다. 이 글은 그가 북경 방문길에 들른 의무려산을 배경으로 하고 있다. 인류의 기원, 계급과 국가의 형성, 법률·제도 등에서부터 천문·율력(律曆)·산수·과학·지진·온천·조석(潮汐)·기상현상 등에 이르기까지 다양하고 폭넓은 논의를 담고 있다. 특히, 지전설(地轉說)이 주장이 실려 있어 매우 가치 있는 자료라 할 수 있다.
◆ 문학사적 위상과 의의
홍대용은 18세기 조선을 대표하는 실학자이자 문인이었다. 북경 방문은 그에게 학문세계를 열어주는 직접적인 계기가 되었으며, 북경에서 견문한 것은 그의 북학사상의 동력으로 작용하였다. 그는 지구(地球)의 자전설(自轉說)을 인식하는 한편, 균전제(均田制)․부병제(府兵制)를 토대로 하는 경제정책의 개혁을 주장했다. 또한 과거제도를 폐지하여 공거제(貢擧制)에 의한 인재 등용, 신분의 차별의 철폐와 모든 아동에게 교육시켜야 한다는 혁신적인 제도 개혁을 제안하기도 했다.
홍대용의 사상 가운데 가장 중요한 지점은 조선 사회를 오랫동안 지배해왔던 화이론(華夷論)에 대한 회의(懷疑)와 부정이다. 중국이 아닌 모든 나라들이 중심임을 강조하여 민족의 고유의 주체성을 강조하고 더 나아가 인간과 자연은 동일한 가치를 지닌 존재임을 강조하였다. 이처럼 사회사상가적 면모를 보인 그는, 수학에도 남다른 관심을 보였다. 관심에만 그친 것이 아니라 『주해수용(籌解需用)』이라는 수학서를 저술하는 등 과학사상가로서 뛰어난 성과를 남겼다.
홍대용의 과학사상과 혁신적인 사회사상의 밑바탕에는 근대 서양 과학과 동양의 전통적 자연관이 존재한다. 때로는 서구 과학의 합리성과 도교의 신비함, 그리고 지구 중심적 세계관 등을 혼재하는 모습을 보여준다. 그럼에도 불구하고 그가 18세기 조선 사회를 대표하는 뛰어난 과학사상가라는 점은 부인할 수 없다. 무엇보다 그의 우주무한론은 실로 대담하고도 독창적이다. 그의 우주관은 세계가 화(華, 중국)과 이(夷, 오랑캐)로 구분되는 전통적인 중화사상을 비판하기 위한 장치였다.
홍대용의 사상의 원천은 ‘연행’과 관련이 깊다. 그가 연행에서 남긴 기록 중 「의산문답(醫山問答)」은 주목할 만하다. 의무려산(醫巫閭山)을 배경으로 대화하는 두 인물을 통해 세속적인 허례허식과 공리공담의 학문을 비판한다, 이 글은 허자(虛者)의 물음에 실학적 면모를 지닌 인물인 실옹(實翁)이 답하는 대화체의 글이다. 30년간 성리학을 익힌 허자가 자신의 학문을 자랑하다가 의무려산에서 실옹을 만나 자신이 그 동안 배운 학문이 헛된 것이었음을 풍자함으로써 홍대용 학문의 지향 처를 보여준다. 홍대용은 이 글을 통해 기존의 우주관에 회의를 품고 그 대안으로 지전설과 함께 무한우주관을 제시하였다.
그의 사상과 경험은 후손까지 이어진다. 홍대용이 연행에서 돌아온 지 60년이 되던 1826년에 그의 손자인 홍양후(洪良厚, 1800~1879)가 동지부사(副使)였던 외숙부 신재식(申在植)을 따라 북경을 방문한다. 홍양후는 북경에서 조부 홍대용과 천애지기(天涯知己)를 맺었던 3명의 선비〔육비(陸飛)·엄성(嚴誠)·반정균(潘庭筠)〕 등의 후손을 찾으려 하였다. 홍대용은 연행에서 이들과 수많은 학문적 필담을 나누고 결의형제(結義兄弟)를 맺어 귀국한 다음에도 계속 서신을 왕래한 바 있었기 때문이다. 홍양후는 그의 조부와 마찬가지로 북경에서 청나라 문사들과 필담을 통해 교유하였는데, 이 정황은 『고칭연사(古稱燕士)』이라는 서찰첩 형태로 보존되어 있다.
1. Introduction
Hong Dae-yong (洪大容, 1731-1783) was a member of the illustrious Noron faction and a Silhak scholar of the Bukhak group. He contributed greatly to the development of scientific thought during the Joseon dynasty. In 1765, he visited Beijing with his uncle Hong Eok (洪檍), where he experience Western culture and the Kaozheng method (考證學) of the Qing dynasty. After returning to Korea, he influenced individuals like Park Ji-won and participated in the formation of the Bukhak group. His writings include Damnheonseo (湛軒書 Writings by Hong Dae-yong) and Damheonyeongi (湛軒燕記 Records of an Envoy to Beijing by Hong Dae-yong).
2. Life
Hong Dae-yong belonged to the Hong clan of Namyang (南陽). The name given to him when he became an adult was Deokbo (德保), and his honorific pseudonyms were Damheon (湛軒) and Hongji (弘之). He was the grandson of Hong Yong-jo (洪龍祚), a former advisor to the king, and was the son to Hong Yeok (洪櫟), a former governor. His mother was the daughter to a county magistrate name Kim Bang (金枋), who belonged to the Kim clan of Cheongpung (淸風). Hong Dae-yong’s wife was the daughter of Yi Hong-jung (李弘重).
Hong Dae-yong learned from the Confucius scholar Kim Won-haeng (金元行) and had close interactions with the Park Ji-won (朴趾源), another Silhak scholar from the Bukhak group. Hong Dae-yong tried several times but failed to pass the national civil service examinations, and as such he was unable to hold any serious government positions. Regardless, he made a place for himself as an important scientific thinker of the late Joseon dynasty, and this success was influenced greatly by his experiences in Beijing.
In 1765, Hong Dae-yong went to Beijing with his uncle, Hong Eok (洪檍), who was a chronicler of a diplomatic envoy to Beijing. He stayed in Beijing for about 60 days. During this time, he interacted with various intellectuals of the Qing dynasty, such as Yan Cheng (嚴誠), Pan Ting Yun (潘庭筠), and Lu Fei (陸飛).
Other important individuals that Hong Dae-yong interacted with during his stay in Beijing were Western missionaries. He met two German missionaries, August von Hallerstein and Antoine Gogeisl, whom with he had conversations about Catholicism and astronomy. Through these interactions he became familiar with the foundations of the natural sciences: mathematics.
He made early arguments for the theory that the Earth rotated on its axis and the theory that the universe is infinite. He used these theories as evidence when raising doubt over the dominating ideology of the time, sinocentrism (華夷論). Regardless of these accomplishments, Hong Dae-yong never became a renowned bureaucrat. His highest achievement as a public official was taking office as county mayor of Yeongcheon. He died at the age of 52.
3. Works
Damheonseo (湛軒書 Writings by Hong Dae-yong) is one collection of writings left behind by Hong Dae-yong; included in this collection are the pieces: Geonjeongpildam (乾淨筆談 Correspondences with Three Friends), Damheonyeongi (湛軒燕記 Records of an Envoy to Beijing by Hong Dae-yong), Imhagyeongryun (林下經綸 A Suggestion of Reforms), Saseomunui (四書問疑 Four Inquiries), Hangjeoncheokdok (抗傳尺牘 Correspondences with Chinese Scholars), and Samkyeongmunbyeon (三經問辨 Questions Regarding the Three Classics of Confucian Scripture). Aside from a few letters and pieces of poetry, Damheonseo is comprised mainly of the writings Hong Dae-yong composed in the 10 years following his return from Beijing. For this reason, Hong Dae-yong’s experiences in Beijing make up the bulk of the discussions revolving his works.
Damheonseo’s construction can be summarized as follows. First, the work is split into two parts, and “inner” collection (內集) and an “outer” collection (外集). The inner collection is further split into 4 sections. The pieces titled “Simseongmun” (心性問 Questions on Temperament), “Saseomunbyeon” (四書問辨 Four Inquiries), and “Samkyeongmunbyeong” (三經問辨 Questions Regarding the Three Classics of Confucian Scripture) are included in section one. Section 2 contains saro (史論 a type of historical essay) and a piece titled “Gyebangilgi” (桂坊日記 Diary of the Prince’s Royal Guards). Section 3 contains letters and poems. And Section 4 contains “Imhageongryun” (林下經綸 A Suggestion of Reforms) and “Uisamundap” (醫山問答 Questions and Answers on Mount Yiwulu). The outer collection is split into 10 sections. Section 1 is titled “Hangjeoncheokdok” (杭傳尺牘Correspondences with Chinese Scholars), section 2 and 3 contain the work “Geonjeongdongpildam” (乾淨衕筆談 Correspondences with Three Friends), sections 4 through 6 contain Juhaesuyong (籌解需用 Hong Dae-yong’s Thoughts on Mathematics), and sections 7 through 10 are records of his trip to Beijing (燕記).
The following is a summary of a few of the works in Damheonseo that display his Silhak thought and his scholarly network:
1. Yeongi:
Hong Dae-yong’s yeongi (燕記) were records of the envoy to Beijing in which he participated. Together with Kim Chang-eop’s (金昌業) Nohajaeyeonghaengilgi (老稼齋燕行錄 Records of an Envoy to Beijing by Kim Chang-eop) and Park Ji-won’s Yeolhailgi (熱河日記 Diaries of Rehe), Hong Dae-yong’s yeongi comprises one of three generations of yeonhaengnok, according to 19th century scholar Kim Kyeong-seon (金景善). These records were published in sections 7 through 10 of the outer collection of Damheonseo. These records were written over the 10-year period following Hong Dae-yong’s trip to Beijing as a part of the annual winter solstice envoy to Beijing, in which his Uncle Hong Eok (洪檍) participated as a chronicler.
Sections 1 through 3 of these records include several conversations Hong Dae-yong had with the intellectuals of the Qing dynasty, as well as the pieces titled “Yeonhaenggiryak” (燕行記略 Summary of Our Trip to Beijing) and “Kyeongseonggiryak” (京城記略 Summary of Our Stay in Beijing). These two pieces record the journey from Uiju to Beijing and the experience of staying in Beijing, respectively.
Sections 3 through 4 describe in detail the convenience of Western technological civilization, as well as the life of the Chinese. “Eulbyeongyeonhaengnok” (乙丙燕行錄 Records of an Envoy to Beijing from 1765 to 1766) contains the same information, but is written in hangeul and organized into 10 sections spanning 10 books.
2. “Yupomundap”:
“Yupomundap” (劉鮑問答 Conversations with Two German Missionaries Named Yu and Po) contains conversations Hong Dae-yong had with the German missionaries August von Hallerstein (劉松齡) (who was serving as scholar of astronomy and astrology for the Qing dynasty) and Anton Gogeisl (鮑友管) (who also held a government post for the Qing dynasty). This record comments on various aspects of Catholicism and astronomy. It was also one of the most detailed accounts of Western culture at the time.
3. “Hangjeoncheokdok” and “Geonjeongpildam”:
“Hangjeoncheokdok” (Correspondences with Chinese Scholars) and “Geonjeongpildam” (Correspondences with Three Friends) are comprised of letter correspondences with intellectuals of the Qing dynasty in Beijing. There are a total of 30 letters: 4 letters with Yukbi, 4 letters with Eomseong, 3 letters with Eomseong’s older brother Eomgwa, 2 letters with Eomseong’s son Eomang, 4 letters with Park Jeongkyun, 1 letter with Seo gwangjeong (徐光庭), 4 letters with Dong Mun-heon (鄧汶軒), 5 letters with Son Yong-ju (孫蓉洲), 2 letters with Jo Mae-heon (趙梅軒), and 1 letter with Ju Rang-jae (朱郞齋). “Geonjeongpildam” is comprised of letter correspondences with three men whom Hong Dae-yong became sworn brothers with: Yan Cheng (嚴誠), Pan Ting Yun (潘庭筠), and Lu Fei (陸飛). These documents allow us to see the friendship between intellectuals of the Joseon and Qing dynasties.
4. “Uisanmundap”:
“Uisanmundap” (醫山問答 Questions and Answers on Mount Yiwulu) is a record written in dialogue format of the conversations between two characters, a scholar of the Joseon dynasty named Heoja (虛子) and a man hiding in Mount Yiwulu (醫巫閭山) named Silong (實翁). This work is set in Mount Yiwulu, which Hong Dae-yong visited on his return trip from Beijing. The work contains a vide variety of topics, ranging from the origin of humankind, the formation of classes and nations, and law and institutions, to astronomy, yullyeok (律曆), arithmetic, science, earthquakes, hot springs, the tides, and mutations. In particular, the document has been of particular importance because it contains an argument for the theory that the Earth rotates upon its axis (地轉說).
4. Positions and Significance in the History of Korean Literature
Hong Dae-yong was one of the representative Silhak and literati of 18th century Joseon. His visit to Beijing was the event that lead to his entering the world of academia. And the things he learned in Beijing served as the impetus for the formation of Bukhak thought. Not only did he learn about the theory that the Earth revolves around its own axis, he also learned of the Fubing system (府兵制) and the equal-field system (均田制), which he used as a basis to argue for economic reform in Joseon. He also called for several innovative and progressive policy reforms, such as: the abolishment of the civil service examination system and establishment of a system based on the gonggeoje (貢擧制) which recruited gifted individuals; the end to class discrimination; and that all children be educated.
The most important of all of Hong Dae-yong’s ideas was the doubt and rejection of sinocentrism (華夷論), which had been for a long time the dominant ideology in Joseon. Arguing that all nations, not just China, were at the center of the world, he defended the independence of the Joseon people, as well as arguing that humans and nature had equal worth. In addition to social philosophy, Hong Dae-yong also showed a special interest in math. Actually, he went beyond just having a special interest in math; he made a name for himself as a respectable scientific thinker by writing the text on mathematics titled Juhaesuyong (籌解需用 Hong Dae-yong’s Thoughts on Mathematics).
Hong Dae-yong’s thoughts on mathematics and his progressive social philosophy were influenced by modern Western science and traditional Eastern views on nature. Within his writings are traces of Western scientific rationalism, Taoist mysticism, and even the geocentric model. And despite his unconventional and eclectic influences and philosophies, Hong Dae-yong was still a respectable scientific thinker who represented 18th century Joseon society. Perhaps most impressive was his bold, yet original claim that the universe was infinite—a claim that simultaneously criticized the sinocentric worldview which divided the world into those who were Chinese (華) and those who were barbarians (夷).
Hong Dae-yong’s thoughts on society and science are closely related to his trip to Beijing. Of the many records he left of his trip to Beijing, “Uisanmudap” (醫山問答 Questions and Answers on Mount Yiwulu) is particularly important. This work takes the form of a question-and-answer dialogue between Heoja (虛者) who asks the questions and a man named Silong (實翁) who showed Silhak tendencies. And through the conversation between two these individuals on Mount Yiwulu, Hong Dae-yong criticizes academics who engage in empty formalities and banter. And by satirizing the character Heoja—who boasted of the fact he spent 30 years studying Neo-Confucianism only to travel to Mount Yiwulu to meet Silong and discover that all of his studies were in vain—Hong Dae-yong reveals his opinions on academics. Through this work, Hong Dae-yong expresses doubt over the existing worldview and offers, as a substitute, the theory that the Earth rotates on its axis and the theory that the universe is infinite.
His philosophy and experiences were continued by his descendants. In 1826, 60 years after Hong Dae-yong’s return from Beijing, his grandson Hong Yang-hu (洪良厚, 1800-1879) followed his uncle Shin Jae-sik (申在植) on a winter solstice envoy to Beijing. There, Hong Yang-hu met the descendants of Yan Cheng (嚴誠), Pan Ting Yun (潘庭筠), and Lu Fei (陸飛)—the three classical scholars that Hong Dae-yong had become sworn brothers with, and with whom he continue letter correspondences even after his return to Joseon. Just as his grandfather had done, Hong Yang-hu wrote letter correspondences with the scholars of Beijing, the records of which are preserved in the collection of letters titled Gochingyeonsa (古稱燕士 Letters and Poems Sent to Hong Yung-hu by Chinese Scholars).
5. References
1. Jeong, Min. The Literature Republic of Chinese and Korean Intellectuals of the 18th Century. Munhakdongne, 2014.
2. Park, Hee-byeong. Love and Equality: The Social Philosophy of Hong Dae-yong. Dolbegae, 2013.
3. Kang, Myeong-gwan. Hong Dae-yong 1766: The Yeonhaengnok that Shook the Joseon Intellectual World. The Institute for the Translation of Korean Classis, 2014.
4. Mun, Seok-yun. Research of Hong Dae-yong. Sungkyunkwan University Press, 2012.
5. Hong, Dae-yong. The Letters and Poems Sent to Hong Dae-yong by Chinese Classical Scholars. Edited by Min Jeong, The Korean Christian Museum at Soongsil Universtiy, 2016.
6. Hong, Dae-yong. The Letters and Poems Sent to Hong Yang-hu by Chinese Classical Scholars. Edited by Min Jeong, The Korean Christian Museum at Soongsil Universtiy, 2016.
7. Choi, Sik. “Records of Correspondences between Intellectuals of the Qing and Joseon Dynasties.” Bangyo Society of Language and Literature. The Journal of Bangyo Language and Literature 40, 2015.
8. Shin, Rosa. “Hong Yang-hu, the Grandson of Hong Dae-yong: His Life and Trip to Beijing.” Daedong Institute for Korean Studies. Daedong Cultural Studies 81, 2013.
9. “Hong Dae-yong.” The Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. The Academy of Korean Studies:
12. “Damheonseo.” The Database of Korean Classics. The Institute for the Translation of Korean Classics:
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